Enumerate the chief characteristic features of the Harappan cities.

The Harappan civilization, also known as the Indus Valley civilization, flourished from around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE in the fertile plains of the Indus River basin, encompassing present-day Pakistan, northwest India, and parts of Afghanistan. The cities of the Harappan civilization were remarkable for their advanced urban planning, sophisticated architecture, and efficient use of resources. Here are the chief characteristic features of Harappan cities:

1. Urban Planning and Layout: One of the most striking features of Harappan cities was their well-planned urban layout. Cities like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Dholavira were designed on a grid pattern with streets laid out in a precise north-south and east-west orientation. The streets were straight and intersected at right angles, dividing the cities into organized blocks or "mohallas."

2. Advanced Drainage and Sanitation Systems: Harappan cities had sophisticated drainage and sanitation systems, demonstrating a high level of civic engineering. Houses were equipped with private bathrooms and toilets connected to a network of covered drains that ran under the streets. The sewage system efficiently disposed of waste and helped maintain public hygiene.

3. Brick Construction and Urban Architecture: Harappan cities were constructed primarily using burnt bricks made from kiln-fired mud. The standardized size of bricks suggests centralized planning and organization. The use of bricks enabled the construction of multi-story buildings and platforms, including public baths, granaries, and administrative centers.

4. Large-Scale Public Buildings: Harappan cities contained impressive public buildings indicating centralized authority and urban planning. These included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, a large rectangular tank with steps leading down to a water reservoir possibly used for ritual bathing. Other notable structures included granaries, assembly halls, and citadels suggesting administrative and religious functions.

5. Water Management and Reservoirs: The Harappans excelled in water management techniques, constructing elaborate systems to control and distribute water for domestic use and agriculture. Cities like Mohenjo-daro had elaborate wells, reservoirs, and water storage tanks to meet the needs of the urban population.

6. Trade and Commerce: Harappan cities were hubs of trade and commerce, engaging in long-distance trade with regions as far as Mesopotamia. Archaeological finds of seals, weights, and standardized measures indicate a well-developed system of economic exchange and market activities. The presence of dockyards at Lothal suggests maritime trade connections.

7. Craftsmanship and Artifacts: The Harappans were skilled craftsmen producing a variety of artifacts from pottery and jewelry to terracotta figurines and metal objects. Archaeological discoveries reveal specialized crafts such as bead-making, shell-working, and metalworking. The discovery of seals with unique symbols suggests a system of writing or proto-writing.

8. Social Organization and Urban Hierarchy: Harappan cities likely had a hierarchical social structure with distinct neighborhoods possibly divided based on occupation or social status. The presence of public buildings, granaries, and citadels suggests centralized authority and possibly a ruling elite overseeing urban administration.

9. Cultural and Religious Practices: Harappan cities exhibited cultural and religious practices reflected in artifacts like figurines depicting human and animal forms, pottery with intricate designs, and seals with enigmatic symbols and motifs. The presence of public baths and fire altars suggests ritualistic activities and communal gatherings.

10. Decline and Abandonment: Despite their remarkable achievements, Harappan cities faced a decline around 1900 BCE, possibly due to environmental factors such as climate change, deforestation, or tectonic activity leading to riverine shifts. The abandonment of cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa marked the end of the Indus Valley civilization, leaving behind a legacy of urban planning and cultural sophistication.

In summary, the Harappan cities exemplified a high level of urban planning, technological innovation, and cultural richness. Their well-organized layout, advanced infrastructure, and economic prosperity highlight the remarkable achievements of one of the world's earliest urban civilizations. The characteristic features of Harappan cities continue to fascinate archaeologists and historians, offering insights into the complexities of ancient urban life in the Indus Valley.