The protection of civilian populations in times of armed conflict is a fundamental principle of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and a cornerstone of humanitarian action. This principle, enshrined in various international treaties and conventions, aims to mitigate the human suffering caused by warfare and ensure that civilians are spared from the effects of hostilities to the greatest extent possible. In this comprehensive exploration, we will delve into the legal framework, challenges, and practical measures related to the protection of civilians in armed conflict.

Legal Framework:

The protection of civilians is addressed in several key instruments of IHL, including the four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977. These treaties establish legal obligations for states and parties to armed conflicts to respect and protect civilians from the dangers of warfare. Additionally, customary international law, which reflects general state practice and opinio juris, also contains norms related to the protection of civilians.

Geneva Conventions:

The Geneva Conventions provide specific protections for civilians during armed conflict, distinguishing between those who are taking no part in hostilities and those who are no longer participating in hostilities (such as wounded, sick, and shipwrecked persons). Key provisions include:

1. Protection against direct attack: Civilians and civilian objects, such as homes, schools, hospitals, and infrastructure essential for the survival of the civilian population, are immune from direct attack unless they are being used for military purposes.

2. Prohibition of indiscriminate attacks: Parties to the conflict are prohibited from conducting attacks that are not directed at a specific military objective or that cannot be aimed at without causing disproportionate harm to civilians.

3. Protection of humanitarian assistance: Civilians have the right to receive humanitarian assistance, and parties to the conflict must allow and facilitate the delivery of such assistance to affected populations.

4. Prohibition of displacement: Civilians cannot be forcibly displaced from their homes unless it is necessary for their own safety or for imperative military reasons.

Additional Protocols:

The Additional Protocols of 1977 elaborate on the protections afforded to civilians under the Geneva Conventions and address issues arising from contemporary armed conflicts. They reinforce the principles of distinction, proportionality, and precaution in the conduct of hostilities and introduce additional safeguards for civilians, including:

1. Prohibition of attacks on civilians: Deliberate attacks on civilians or civilian objects, as well as attacks that fail to discriminate between civilians and combatants, are prohibited.

2. Protection of civilian objects: Parties to the conflict must take all feasible precautions to avoid the incidental loss of civilian life or damage to civilian objects during military operations.

3. Precautionary measures: Parties to the conflict must take constant care to spare civilians and civilian objects, including by providing effective warnings and taking measures to minimize the impact of attacks.

Challenges:

Despite the existence of a robust legal framework for the protection of civilians, numerous challenges persist in ensuring their safety and well-being during armed conflict. Some of the key challenges include:

1. Armed Non-State Actors (ANSAs): The proliferation of non-state armed groups, terrorist organizations, and other ANSAs has complicated efforts to protect civilians, as these groups may not recognize or abide by international humanitarian norms.

2. Urban Warfare: Modern conflicts often take place in urban areas, where civilians are particularly vulnerable to the effects of hostilities due to the proximity of combatants and the difficulty of distinguishing between military and civilian objects.

3. Displacement and Refugees: Armed conflict frequently results in the displacement of civilian populations, forcing them to flee their homes in search of safety and humanitarian assistance. Displaced persons are at heightened risk of exploitation, abuse, and deprivation.

4. Humanitarian Access: Restrictions on humanitarian access, including bureaucratic obstacles, security concerns, and deliberate impediments by parties to the conflict, can hinder the delivery of lifesaving assistance to civilian populations in need.

5. Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV): Civilians, particularly women and children, are often subjected to sexual violence, exploitation, and abuse in conflict-affected areas, perpetuating cycles of trauma and insecurity.

Practical Measures:

Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach involving states, humanitarian organizations, civil society, and other stakeholders. Some practical measures to enhance the protection of civilians in armed conflict include:

1. Training and Capacity Building: Military personnel, peacekeepers, and humanitarian workers should receive comprehensive training on IHL, human rights law, and the protection of civilians to ensure they understand their obligations and responsibilities.

2. Civilian Harm Mitigation Policies: States and armed forces should adopt policies and procedures to minimize civilian harm during military operations, including through the use of precision weapons, targeted airstrikes, and other means of reducing collateral damage.

3. Humanitarian Engagement: Humanitarian organizations should engage with parties to the conflict to negotiate access to civilian populations in need and to advocate for the protection of humanitarian personnel, facilities, and activities.

4. Community Engagement: Civil society, including local community leaders, religious institutions, and grassroots organizations, can play a critical role in protecting civilians by raising awareness, providing assistance, and advocating for their rights and dignity.

5. Accountability and Justice: Perpetrators of violations against civilians must be held accountable for their actions through legal mechanisms, including domestic and international courts, truth commissions, and reparations programs.

Conclusion:

The protection of civilians in armed conflict is a moral imperative and a legal obligation under International Humanitarian Law. While significant progress has been made in developing legal norms and practical measures to safeguard civilians, numerous challenges remain in ensuring their safety, dignity, and well-being amid the complexities of modern warfare. By strengthening compliance with IHL, enhancing humanitarian response efforts, and promoting accountability for violations, the international community can strive to uphold the fundamental principle that civilians must be spared from the ravages of war.

The Problem of Child Soldiers in South Asia

Introduction:

The recruitment and use of child soldiers represent a grave violation of human rights and humanitarian law, with profound and lasting impacts on the lives of children and societies as a whole. South Asia, a region characterized by numerous armed conflicts, insurgencies, and internal strife, is no stranger to this problem. Despite efforts to address the issue, child soldiers continue to be recruited and exploited by various armed groups and state forces across the region. This essay examines the problem of child soldiers in South Asia, exploring its root causes, consequences, efforts to address the issue, and future challenges.

Root Causes of Child Soldiering:

1. Armed Conflicts and Insurgencies: South Asia has been marked by protracted armed conflicts and insurgencies, providing fertile ground for the recruitment of child soldiers. Groups such as the Taliban in Afghanistan, various militant outfits in Pakistan, Naxalite insurgents in India, and ethnic armed groups in Myanmar have all been known to recruit and deploy children in their ranks.

2. Poverty and Marginalization: Poverty, lack of access to education, and social marginalization increase the vulnerability of children to recruitment by armed groups. Many children in South Asia come from disadvantaged backgrounds, living in communities with limited economic opportunities and social services. These conditions make them susceptible to exploitation and coercion by armed groups promising financial incentives or a sense of belonging.

3. Breakdown of Social Structures: The breakdown of traditional social structures and community support networks in conflict-affected areas further exacerbates the vulnerability of children to recruitment. Displacement, family separation, and the loss of protective mechanisms leave children without adequate support and supervision, making them easy targets for manipulation and recruitment by armed groups.

4. Ethnic and Religious Conflict: Ethnic and religious tensions contribute to the recruitment of child soldiers in South Asia, with children often drawn into armed groups based on ethnic or religious affiliations. In countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Myanmar, children are recruited by armed groups seeking to advance ethnic or religious agendas, perpetuating cycles of violence and intercommunal strife.

5. Lack of Birth Registration and Documentation: The absence of birth registration and documentation in many parts of South Asia makes it difficult to assess the scale of the problem and provide targeted interventions for child soldiers. Without official identification, children are vulnerable to recruitment and exploitation by armed groups without detection or recourse.

Consequences of Child Soldiering:

1. Physical and Psychological Trauma: Child soldiers are exposed to extreme levels of violence, including combat operations, forced labor, sexual abuse, and psychological manipulation. This exposure can result in severe physical injuries, trauma, and long-term psychological disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety.

2. Education Disruption: Recruitment into armed groups disrupts children's access to education, denying them the opportunity for intellectual development, socialization, and future prospects. Many child soldiers are deprived of formal schooling and subjected to military training and indoctrination, perpetuating cycles of poverty and illiteracy.

3. Social Stigma and Rejection: Child soldiers often face social stigma and rejection upon demobilization, both within their communities and families. They may be ostracized, discriminated against, or treated as pariahs due to their association with armed groups, leading to social isolation and marginalization.

4. Loss of Childhood: Child soldiering robs children of their childhood and innocence, forcing them to assume roles and responsibilities beyond their years. Instead of enjoying the carefree pursuits of childhood, they are thrust into the horrors of armed conflict, exposed to violence, hardship, and death.

Efforts to Address the Problem:

1. Legislative and Policy Measures: Many countries in South Asia have enacted legislation and developed national policies to prohibit the recruitment and use of child soldiers. These measures include laws criminalizing child recruitment, national action plans for child protection, and the establishment of special commissions or agencies to monitor and address the issue.

2. Demobilization and Reintegration Programs: Governments, international organizations, and NGOs in South Asia have implemented demobilization and reintegration programs to assist child soldiers in transitioning back to civilian life. These programs provide psychosocial support, education, vocational training, and economic opportunities to help children rebuild their lives and reintegrate into their communities.

3. International Cooperation and Assistance: International cooperation and assistance play a crucial role in addressing the problem of child soldiers in South Asia. Regional organizations such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and international bodies like the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) collaborate with governments and civil society organizations to support child protection initiatives, provide technical assistance, and advocate for policy reform.

4. Community Engagement and Awareness: Community engagement and awareness-raising efforts are essential for preventing child recruitment and fostering a protective environment for children in conflict-affected areas. Education campaigns, community dialogues, and outreach activities help raise awareness about the risks of child soldiering, promote child rights, and mobil

Issues Relating to the Evolution of Proportionality in Attack

Introduction:

Proportionality in attack is a fundamental principle of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) that governs the use of force during armed conflict. It requires parties to a conflict to ensure that the expected military advantage gained from an attack is not outweighed by the expected harm to civilians or civilian objects. The concept of proportionality has evolved over time, shaped by developments in military technology, changes in warfare dynamics, judicial interpretations, and emerging challenges in civilian protection. This essay explores the evolution of proportionality in attack, key issues and controversies surrounding its application, and efforts to enhance compliance with this essential humanitarian principle.

Evolution of Proportionality in Attack:

1. Historical Development: The principle of proportionality has roots in customary international law and military ethics, dating back to ancient civilizations and early codes of warfare. In medieval Europe, the doctrine of "just war" emphasized the need to minimize harm to non-combatants and ensure that the use of force was proportional to the military objective pursued.

2. Codification in IHL: Proportionality was codified in modern IHL through treaties such as the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 and 2005. Article 51(5)(b) of Additional Protocol I defines proportionality as a requirement to weigh the anticipated military advantage against the expected civilian harm when planning and executing attacks.

3. Judicial Interpretations: The application of proportionality in attack has been shaped by judicial interpretations, including decisions of international courts and tribunals. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Court (ICC) have provided guidance on the application of proportionality in cases of alleged war crimes.

4. Technological Advances: The evolution of military technology, including precision-guided munitions, unmanned aerial vehicles (drones), and cyber weapons, has raised new challenges for the application of proportionality. While these technologies offer increased precision and reduced collateral damage, they also raise concerns about the potential for disproportionate harm and civilian casualties.

5. Civilian Protection Agenda: The growing recognition of the humanitarian consequences of armed conflict has led to increased emphasis on civilian protection in IHL and military doctrine. Proportionality in attack is seen as a critical component of efforts to minimize harm to civilians and uphold the principle of distinction between combatants and non-combatants.

Issues and Controversies:

1. Assessing Military Advantage: One of the key challenges in applying proportionality is accurately assessing the military advantage anticipated from an attack. This requires commanders to make complex judgments based on factors such as the strategic importance of the target, the presence of enemy forces or equipment, and the potential impact on the overall course of the conflict.

2. Predicting Civilian Harm: Predicting the expected harm to civilians or civilian objects is inherently difficult, particularly in dynamic and fluid battlefield conditions. Factors such as the presence of civilian infrastructure, the proximity of civilians to military targets, and the accuracy of intelligence information can affect the assessment of civilian risk.

3. Subjectivity and Discretion: Proportionality assessments involve a degree of subjectivity and discretion on the part of military commanders, who must balance competing considerations and make difficult decisions under pressure. This can lead to variability in the application of proportionality and raise concerns about accountability and transparency.

4. Legal Uncertainty: Despite efforts to clarify the legal framework governing proportionality, there remains some degree of uncertainty and ambiguity surrounding its application in practice. The concept of "expected" civilian harm, for example, is open to interpretation, as is the definition of "excessive" harm in relation to the anticipated military advantage.

5. Accountability and Remedies: Ensuring accountability for violations of proportionality in attack poses challenges due to issues such as attribution of responsibility, access to evidence, and the jurisdictional reach of international courts and tribunals. Victims of disproportionate attacks may face obstacles in seeking redress and reparations for harm suffered.

Efforts to Enhance Compliance:

1. Training and Education: Military training and education programs play a crucial role in promoting understanding of proportionality in attack and its practical application. Training modules, simulations, and case studies can help commanders and troops develop the skills and judgment needed to make proportionality assessments in accordance with IHL.

2. Technological Innovation: Advances in military technology, such as the development of precision-guided munitions and civilian casualty tracking systems, can help minimize the risk of disproportionate harm in armed conflict. Improved targeting capabilities and real-time monitoring can enhance the accuracy and precision of attacks, reducing the likelihood of civilian casualties.

3. Legal Review and Oversight: Robust legal review processes and oversight mechanisms can help ensure that military operations comply with the principles of proportionality and distinction. Legal advisors and operational planners can assess the legality of proposed attacks, provide guidance on compliance with IHL, and flag any concerns regarding potential civilian harm.

4. Dialogue and Cooperation: Enhanced dialogue and cooperation between military forces, humanitarian organizations, and civil society can facilitate a shared understanding of proportionality in attack and promote collaboration on civilian protection initiatives. Joint training exercises, information sharing mechanisms, and civilian-military coordination structures can help build trust and strengthen compliance with IHL.

5. Accountability Mechanisms: Strengthening accountability mechanisms for violations of proportionality in attack is essential for deterring future violations and ensuring justice for victims. National courts, international tribunals, and other accountability mechanisms can investigate alleged war crimes, prosecute those responsible, and provide reparations to affected individuals and communities.

Conclusion:

The evolution of proportionality in attack reflects ongoing efforts to balance military necessity with humanitarian considerations in armed conflict. While challenges and controversies persist, efforts to enhance compliance with this fundamental principle are essential for minimizing harm to civilians, upholding the principles of distinction and proportionality, and promoting respect for human dignity in times of war. By addressing issues such as assessment methodologies, legal clarity, accountability mechanisms, and technological innovation, stakeholders can strengthen the protection of civilian

The protection of women and children during armed conflict is a fundamental aspect of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and human rights law. Women and children are often among the most vulnerable groups affected by armed conflict, facing risks of violence, displacement, exploitation, and deprivation of essential services. Ensuring their safety, well-being, and rights is essential for upholding humanitarian principles, promoting gender equality, and building sustainable peace. In this comprehensive explanation, we will explore the legal framework, key principles, challenges, and strategies for protecting women and children during armed conflict.

Legal Framework:

The protection of women and children during armed conflict is governed by several international legal instruments, including:

1. Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocols:
   The four Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977 establish rules and principles for the protection of civilians and combatants during armed conflict, including the protection of women and children. Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol II specifically prohibit violence against civilians, including women and children, and mandate humane treatment and access to essential services.

2. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC):
   Adopted in 1989, the CRC is the most comprehensive treaty on children's rights, emphasizing the protection of children during armed conflict. States parties to the CRC are obligated to ensure children's survival, development, and protection from violence, exploitation, and abuse, including during armed conflict.

3. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW):
   CEDAW, adopted in 1979, prohibits discrimination against women and mandates measures to ensure their equal rights and opportunities in all spheres of life, including during armed conflict. States parties to CEDAW are required to protect women from gender-based violence, ensure access to justice and reparations, and promote gender equality in conflict prevention and resolution.

4. Optional Protocol to the CRC on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict:
   The Optional Protocol, adopted in 2000, establishes measures to prevent the recruitment and use of children in armed conflict and to protect children affected by armed conflict. It prohibits the recruitment of children under the age of 18 by armed forces or armed groups and strengthens protections for child soldiers and child victims of armed conflict.

Key Principles:

The protection of women and children during armed conflict is guided by several key principles and considerations, including:

1. Non-Discrimination:
   Women and children are entitled to equal protection under IHL and human rights law, regardless of their gender, age, nationality, or other characteristics. All parties to a conflict are prohibited from discriminating against women and children in the provision of humanitarian assistance, access to essential services, or treatment under the law.

2. Best Interests of the Child:
   The best interests of the child must be a primary consideration in all decisions and actions affecting children during armed conflict. This principle, enshrined in the CRC, requires states and parties to a conflict to prioritize children's safety, well-being, and development, including in decisions related to evacuation, shelter, education, and family reunification.

3. Special Protections for Children:
   Children are entitled to special protections and safeguards under IHL and human rights law, reflecting their heightened vulnerability and dependency during armed conflict. These protections include prohibitions on the recruitment and use of child soldiers, attacks on schools and hospitals, and other forms of violence, exploitation, and abuse.

4. Gender Sensitivity:
   IHL and human rights law recognize the gender-specific impact of armed conflict on women and girls, including risks of sexual and gender-based violence, forced displacement, and loss of livelihoods. States and parties to a conflict are obligated to adopt gender-sensitive approaches to protection, assistance, and recovery efforts, addressing the distinct needs and vulnerabilities of women and girls.

5. Prevention and Accountability:
   States and parties to a conflict have an obligation to prevent violations of women's and children's rights and hold perpetrators accountable for crimes committed against them. This includes investigating allegations of gender-based violence, prosecuting perpetrators, and providing access to justice and reparations for survivors.

Challenges and Threats:

The protection of women and children during armed conflict faces numerous challenges and threats, including:

1. Gender-Based Violence:
   Women and girls are at heightened risk of sexual and gender-based violence during armed conflict, including rape, sexual slavery, forced marriage, and trafficking. Perpetrators, including state actors, armed groups, and individuals, may use sexual violence as a weapon of war to terrorize, control, and intimidate civilian populations.

2. Child Recruitment and Use:
   Children are recruited and used by armed forces and armed groups for various roles in armed conflict, including as combatants, spies, messengers, and laborers. Child soldiers are exposed to physical and psychological harm, deprived of their rights to education, health, and protection, and at risk of long-term social and economic exclusion.

3. Displacement and Separation:
   Armed conflict often results in the forced displacement of civilian populations, including women and children, who flee their homes in search of safety and protection. Displaced women and children face risks of separation from family members, loss of documentation and legal identity, and barriers to access humanitarian assistance, including shelter, food, water, and healthcare.

4. Lack of Access to Education:
   Armed conflict disrupts children's access to education, depriving them of their right to learn, develop, and thrive. Attacks on schools, teachers, and students, as well as the occupation or destruction of educational infrastructure, contribute to the denial of education for millions of children affected by armed conflict, particularly girls.

5. Psychosocial Trauma and Stigmatization:
   Women and children affected by armed conflict experience profound psychosocial trauma, including anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other mental health conditions. Stigmatization, discrimination, and social exclusion further compound their suffering, inhibiting their recovery, resilience, and reintegration into their communities.

Strategies for Protection:

Addressing the protection needs of women and children during armed conflict requires comprehensive strategies and interventions, including:

1. Preventive Measures:
   Preventing violations of women's and children's rights during armed conflict requires addressing root causes and risk factors, including poverty, inequality, discrimination, and impunity. Investing in education, healthcare, livelihoods, and social protection can reduce vulnerabilities and strengthen resilience to conflict-related risks.

2. Legal and Policy Frameworks:
   Strengthening legal and policy frameworks is essential for protecting women's and children's rights during armed conflict. States should ratify and implement international treaties and protocols related to women's and children's rights, including the CRC, CEDAW, and their optional protocols, and enact national laws and policies to ensure compliance with international standards.

3. Capacity Building and Training:
   Building the capacity of state authorities, security forces, humanitarian actors, and civil society organizations is critical for effectively responding to the protection needs of women and children during armed conflict. Training programs on IHL, human rights law, gender equality, child protection, and psychosocial support can enhance awareness, skills, and coordination among stakeholders.

4. Community Engagement and Empowerment:
   Engaging communities, including women's groups, youth organizations, religious leaders, and traditional authorities, is essential for identifying protection risks, mobilizing

Over the last decade, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) has played a significant role in upholding International Humanitarian Law (IHL) principles during non-international armed conflicts (NIACs) through various mechanisms, resolutions, and actions. NIACs, which occur within the borders of a single state between government forces and non-state armed groups or between such groups, present unique challenges for the protection of civilians and the enforcement of IHL. The UNSC, as the primary organ responsible for maintaining international peace and security, has employed diplomatic, legal, and coercive measures to address violations of IHL and promote compliance with humanitarian norms in NIAC settings. In this comprehensive explanation, we will explore the role of the UNSC in upholding IHL principles during NIACs over the last decade, including key resolutions, mandates, challenges, and achievements.

Legal Basis:

The UNSC's authority to address NIACs and uphold IHL principles is derived from Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, which empowers the Council to take measures to maintain or restore international peace and security. While the UNSC's primary focus is on conflicts between states (international armed conflicts), it also has a responsibility to address situations involving widespread violations of human rights and humanitarian law within the territory of a single state (NIACs). In recent years, the UNSC has increasingly recognized the need to address the humanitarian impact of NIACs and hold perpetrators of violations accountable, leading to greater attention to IHL principles in its deliberations and decisions.

Key Resolutions and Mandates:

1. Protection of Civilians:
   The UNSC has adopted numerous resolutions emphasizing the importance of protecting civilians in armed conflict, including during NIACs. Resolution 2286 (2016), for example, condemns attacks on medical facilities and personnel and calls for greater respect for IHL and medical neutrality. Similarly, Resolution 2417 (2018) focuses on the impact of conflict on food security and calls for adherence to IHL principles, including the protection of civilian infrastructure essential for food production and distribution.

2. Children and Armed Conflict:
   The UNSC has issued resolutions specifically addressing the protection of children in armed conflict, including during NIACs. Resolution 1612 (2005) established a monitoring and reporting mechanism on grave violations against children in conflict, such as recruitment and use of child soldiers, killing and maiming, and attacks on schools and hospitals. Subsequent resolutions, including Resolution 2427 (2018), reinforce these protections and call for accountability for perpetrators.

3. Women, Peace, and Security:
   The UNSC has recognized the gender-specific impact of armed conflict and the importance of addressing the needs and rights of women and girls affected by NIACs. Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace, and Security calls for the participation of women in peace processes, protection of women and girls from gender-based violence, and integration of gender perspectives into conflict prevention and resolution efforts.

4. Counterterrorism and IHL:
   The UNSC has addressed the intersection between counterterrorism measures and IHL principles, particularly in the context of NIACs involving terrorist groups. Resolution 2462 (2019) emphasizes the importance of respecting IHL and human rights law in countering terrorism, including ensuring due process, protecting civilians, and avoiding indiscriminate or disproportionate attacks.

5. Humanitarian Access:
   The UNSC has highlighted the importance of ensuring humanitarian access to populations affected by NIACs, particularly in situations of siege, blockade, or other restrictions on the delivery of aid. Resolutions such as Resolution 2139 (2014) call for unhindered access for humanitarian organizations and respect for the principles of neutrality, impartiality, and independence in the provision of assistance.

Challenges and Limitations:

Despite these efforts, the UNSC faces several challenges and limitations in upholding IHL principles during NIACs:

1. Political Divisions and Veto Power:
   Political divisions among UNSC members, particularly the five permanent members with veto power (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), can hinder consensus on resolutions related to NIACs. Veto-wielding states may prioritize geopolitical interests over humanitarian concerns, leading to delays or watered-down resolutions that fail to adequately address violations of IHL.

2. Selective Application of IHL:
   The UNSC's response to NIACs has been criticized for its selective application of IHL principles, particularly regarding conflicts where powerful states or their allies are involved. Perceived double standards in the Council's approach to NIACs undermine its credibility and effectiveness in promoting compliance with humanitarian norms and accountability for violations.

3. Enforcement Challenges:
   The UNSC's ability to enforce its resolutions on NIACs is limited by factors such as lack of enforcement mechanisms, insufficient resources, and resistance from non-compliant parties. While the Council can impose sanctions, authorize peacekeeping missions, or refer cases to international courts or tribunals, implementation often depends on cooperation from member states and other stakeholders.

4. Complexity of NIACs:
   NIACs are often characterized by fragmentation, multiple armed groups, and fluid alliances, making it difficult to identify and engage with all parties to the conflict. The decentralized nature of NIACs poses challenges for monitoring compliance with IHL, investigating violations, and holding perpetrators accountable, especially when armed groups operate in remote or inaccessible areas.

5. Humanitarian Access Constraints:
   Despite UNSC resolutions calling for humanitarian access, parties to NIACs may obstruct or impede the delivery of aid to civilian populations in need. Security risks, bureaucratic hurdles, and deliberate restrictions on humanitarian access by warring parties can undermine efforts to provide lifesaving assistance and protection to affected communities.

Achievements and Impact:

Despite these challenges, the UNSC's efforts to uphold IHL principles during NIACs have had several achievements and positive impacts:

1. Normative Framework:
   UNSC resolutions on NIACs have contributed to the development of a normative framework for the protection of civilians, children, women, and other vulnerable groups in armed conflict. These resolutions reinforce existing legal obligations under IHL and IHRL and provide guidance for states, armed groups, and humanitarian actors.

2. Political Pressure and Diplomacy:
   The UNSC's attention to NIACs has helped generate political pressure on parties to the conflict to respect IHL principles and engage in dialogue to resolve humanitarian issues. Diplomatic efforts, including mediation, negotiation, and conflict resolution initiatives, supported by the UNSC, can facilitate peaceful settlements and mitigate the humanitarian impact of NIACs.

3. Humanitarian Assistance and Protection:
   UNSC resolutions have facilitated humanitarian assistance and protection for civilian populations affected by NIACs, including through the authorization of peacekeeping missions, humanitarian corridors, and cross-border aid deliveries. These efforts have helped alleviate suffering, save lives, and address urgent humanitarian needs in conflict-affected areas.

4. Accountability and Justice:
   The UNSC's engagement on NIACs has contributed to efforts to hold perpetrators of IHL violations accountable and ensure justice for victims. Resolutions establishing commissions of inquiry, fact-finding missions, or international criminal tribunals have helped document violations, gather evidence, and pursue accountability for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.

5. Awareness and Advocacy:
   The UNSC's attention to NIACs