Portuguese trade refers to the maritime commercial activities conducted by Portugal during the Age of Exploration, particularly in the 15th and 16th centuries. Portugal, under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, established an extensive trade network, expanding its influence globally.

The Portuguese were pioneers in exploring sea routes to Asia and Africa. Vasco da Gama's successful voyage around the Cape of Good Hope to India in 1498 opened a direct sea route to the lucrative spice trade of the East. The establishment of fortified trading posts along the coasts of Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, such as Goa, Malacca, and Macau, allowed Portugal to dominate key trade routes.

The Portuguese trade was characterized by the exchange of goods, including spices, precious metals, textiles, and other commodities, between Europe and the East. They played a significant role in shaping the early stages of the global trading system. However, Portuguese dominance faced challenges from rival European powers like the Dutch and the British, leading to shifts in global trade dynamics over time. The legacy of Portuguese exploration and trade can be seen in the cultural and economic interactions that continue to influence the regions they touched during this period.

Akbar, the third ruler of the Mughal Empire, played a pivotal role in shaping the architectural landscape of India. His reign (1556-1605) witnessed the introduction of innovative architectural features that blended indigenous styles with Persian and Central Asian influences. Akbar's architectural contributions reflected a synthesis of artistic traditions, resulting in a distinctive Mughal style. Here are some key architectural features introduced during Akbar's reign:

1. Fatehpur Sikri:

• One of Akbar's most iconic architectural creations is the city of Fatehpur Sikri, built to honor the Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti. The city showcases a harmonious blend of Persian, Timurid, and Indian architectural elements. Notable structures include the Buland Darwaza, the Diwan-i-Khas, and the Jodha Bai Palace.

2. Red Sandstone Construction:

• Akbar favored the extensive use of red sandstone in his constructions, creating a distinct visual identity. The choice of red sandstone not only provided a rich color palette but also conveyed a sense of grandeur and permanence.

3. Akbari Architecture:

• Akbar introduced the Akbari architecture style, characterized by expansive courtyards, large halls, and intricately carved columns. This style aimed to create a sense of openness and grandiosity in the architectural designs.

4. Buland Darwaza:

• The Buland Darwaza, located at Fatehpur Sikri, is a magnificent gateway and a prime example of Akbar's architectural prowess. It stands at a height of 54 meters and is adorned with inscriptions and intricate carvings.

5. Diwan-i-Khas:

• The Diwan-i-Khas, or Hall of Private Audience, was designed to host important meetings and discussions. The central pillar, known as the Ashoka Pillar, was brought from Topra and installed in the Diwan-i-Khas.

6. Panch Mahal:

• Located in Fatehpur Sikri, the Panch Mahal is a five-storied palatial structure characterized by its open pavilions and a central pillar. It served as a leisure space and is a fine example of Mughal aesthetics.

7. Integration of Hindu and Persian Elements:

• Akbar's architecture reflected his policy of religious tolerance. He incorporated elements from Hindu and Persian architecture, such as chhatris (domed pavilions), jharokhas (balconied windows), and intricate lattice work.

8. Humayun's Tomb:

• Although commissioned by Akbar's son, Jahangir, the Humayun's Tomb complex began during Akbar's reign. The tomb's architectural features, including its use of red sandstone and white marble, laid the groundwork for later Mughal mausoleums.

Akbar's architectural legacy not only contributed to the visual richness of the Mughal Empire but also established a foundation for the subsequent architectural masterpieces during the Mughal era. His innovative designs and incorporation of diverse influences left an indelible mark on the history of Indian architecture.

Revenue farming under the Marathas and Deccan States was a distinctive system of revenue administration prevalent in the Deccan region during the 17th and 18th centuries. This system, also known as the 'Khoti' or 'Ijara' system, involved the leasing of revenue rights to private individuals or contractors. Here are key aspects of the nature of revenue farming in the Maratha and Deccan States:

1. Farmans and Grants:

• The Marathas and Deccan States issued 'farmans' or grants to individuals, allowing them to collect revenue from a specific area for a fixed period. These farmans specified the terms and conditions, including the revenue share to be paid to the state.

2. Role of Revenue Contractors:

• Revenue farming involved the appointment of revenue contractors, known as 'Khot' or 'Ijaradar,' who bid for the right to collect revenue from a particular region. These contractors were responsible for revenue collection and remitted a fixed amount to the state.

3. Bid System:

• The revenue contractors participated in a competitive bidding process, where the highest bidder secured the right to collect revenue from a designated territory. This system aimed to generate revenue for the state and encouraged efficiency among contractors.

4. Revenue Collection and Responsibilities:

• Revenue contractors were responsible for assessing and collecting land revenue, including taxes and dues, from the assigned area. They had the authority to manage local administration, settle land disputes, and ensure law and order within their jurisdiction.

5. Challenges and Abuses:

• While revenue farming provided a quick source of revenue for the state, it often led to exploitation and abuse by revenue contractors. Excessive taxation, harassment of peasants, and corruption were common issues associated with the revenue farming system.

6. Regional Variations:

• The nature of revenue farming varied across different regions within the Deccan States. Some areas witnessed efficient and organized revenue collection, while others experienced mismanagement and malpractices.

7. Impact on Peasantry:

• The revenue farming system had a direct impact on the peasantry. Peasants often faced high and arbitrary taxation, leading to economic hardships. The system contributed to discontent among the rural population.

8. Transition to Direct Collection:

• Over time, the Marathas realized the shortcomings of the revenue farming system. There was a gradual shift towards direct revenue collection by the state, aiming to eliminate middlemen and ensure a fairer and more efficient administration.

In conclusion, revenue farming under the Marathas and Deccan States was characterized by the leasing of revenue rights to private contractors. While it provided a source of revenue for the state, the system had inherent challenges, including exploitation of the peasantry and corruption. The transition towards direct revenue collection reflected the evolving administrative practices in the Deccan region during this period.