Mahatma Gandhi's political philosophy, often referred to as Gandhian philosophy or Gandhism, is rooted in the principles of nonviolence (ahimsa), truth (satya), selflessness, and the pursuit of social justice and equality. Gandhi's philosophy evolved through his experiences in South Africa and later became a guiding force in India's struggle for independence. Here are key aspects of Gandhi's political philosophy:

1. Nonviolence (Ahimsa): Gandhi's central principle was nonviolence, which he considered both a moral virtue and a powerful political strategy. He believed in resisting oppression and injustice through nonviolent means, including civil disobedience, satyagraha (truth-force), and passive resistance.

2. Truth (Satya): Gandhi emphasized the importance of truthfulness in thought, speech, and action. He believed that truth has inherent power and can ultimately prevail over falsehood and violence.

3. Sarvodaya (Welfare of All): Gandhi's philosophy was grounded in the idea of sarvodaya, the upliftment and well-being of all individuals and communities. He advocated for social and economic equality, emphasizing the dignity of labor and the eradication of poverty.

4. Swadeshi (Self-Sufficiency): Gandhi promoted the concept of swadeshi, or self-sufficiency, as a means to challenge colonial economic exploitation. He encouraged the revival of indigenous industries, handloom weaving, and village-based economies.

5. Decentralization and Village Autonomy: Gandhi envisioned a decentralized political structure where power was devolved to local communities and villages. He believed in the importance of self-governance and participatory democracy at the grassroots level.

6. Religious Pluralism and Unity: Gandhi emphasized religious tolerance and harmony among diverse communities. He envisioned India as a multi-religious and inclusive society where all faiths coexist peacefully.

7. Satyagraha (Civil Disobedience): Gandhi's concept of satyagraha involved passive resistance and civil disobedience against unjust laws and colonial oppression. Satyagrahis were expected to maintain discipline, nonviolence, and unwavering commitment to truth.

Gandhi's political philosophy inspired mass movements such as the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922), Salt Satyagraha (1930), and Quit India Movement (1942), which played crucial roles in India's struggle for independence. Gandhi's ideas continue to influence movements for social justice, nonviolence, and human rights worldwide. His emphasis on ethical governance, grassroots empowerment, and spiritual renewal remains relevant in contemporary discussions on politics and governance.

The Subaltern Studies Collective emerged in the 1980s as a significant intellectual movement within the field of Indian historiography, challenging mainstream narratives of Indian history by focusing on the experiences and perspectives of marginalized and oppressed groups. The Subaltern Studies scholars sought to bring to light the voices of subalterns – individuals and communities who were socially, economically, and politically marginalized during colonial and post-colonial periods. In the context of the Indian National Movement, the Subaltern Studies approach offers a nuanced and critical perspective on the complexities and diversities of anti-colonial resistance. Here's an explanation of the Subaltern view on the Indian National Movement:

Key Concepts of Subaltern Studies:

1. Subalternity: The term "subaltern" refers to individuals or groups who are marginalized, oppressed, or excluded from mainstream political and social discourse. Subaltern Studies scholars argue that traditional histories have often neglected the experiences and agency of subaltern groups, focusing instead on elite narratives.

2. Heterogeneity and Diversity: Subaltern Studies emphasize the heterogeneity and diversity of Indian society, highlighting the multiple forms of resistance and activism that emerged among different social groups – peasants, tribal communities, Dalits (lower castes), women, and religious minorities.

3. Agency and Resistance: Subaltern historians challenge the notion that subaltern groups were passive recipients of colonial domination. Instead, they emphasize the agency and creative resistance displayed by these groups in asserting their rights, livelihoods, and identities.

Subaltern Perspectives on the Indian National Movement:

1. Critique of Elite Nationalism: Subaltern Studies scholars critique dominant nationalist narratives that portray the Indian National Movement as primarily led by a few elite figures from urban, educated classes. They argue that this overlooks the contributions and struggles of ordinary people from diverse social backgrounds.

2. Role of Peasants and Rural Movements: Subaltern historians highlight the crucial role of peasants and rural communities in anti-colonial resistance. Movements such as the Champaran Satyagraha (1917) led by Mahatma Gandhi and the Tebhaga Movement in Bengal (1946) are studied to understand peasant mobilization and struggles against oppressive land policies.

3. Tribal and Indigenous Resistance: Subaltern perspectives emphasize the resistance of tribal and indigenous communities against colonial encroachments on their lands, forests, and cultural practices. The Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) and the Birsa Munda movement (late 19th century) are seen as expressions of indigenous autonomy and anti-colonial sentiments.

4. Women's Participation: Subaltern historians highlight the active participation of women in the Indian National Movement, challenging gender norms and contributing to grassroots activism. Women's organizations like the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) and leaders such as Sarojini Naidu and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay are studied within this framework.

5. Dalit Assertion: The Subaltern perspective acknowledges the role of Dalit leaders like B.R. Ambedkar in advocating for social justice and political rights. The Dalit movement's struggle against caste-based discrimination is seen as integral to the broader anti-colonial struggle.

Impact and Significance:

The Subaltern Studies approach has had a profound impact on historiography, challenging established narratives and promoting a more inclusive understanding of Indian history. By foregrounding subaltern voices and experiences, scholars have enriched our understanding of the complexities of resistance, identity, and power dynamics in colonial and post-colonial contexts. The Subaltern view on the Indian National Movement emphasizes the importance of grassroots mobilization, diverse forms of resistance, and the enduring legacies of subaltern struggles for social justice and equality.

The period of the 1920s and 1930s witnessed a surge in revolutionary nationalist movements across various parts of the world, particularly in colonies and regions under colonial rule. These movements were characterized by a fervent desire for independence, self-determination, and the overthrow of colonial or imperial domination. The ideologies and activities of revolutionary nationalists during this time were diverse, often drawing inspiration from anti-colonial, socialist, and nationalist ideologies. Here's a description of the key ideologies and activities of revolutionary nationalists during the 1920s and 1930s:

Ideologies of Revolutionary Nationalists:

1. Nationalism and Anti-Colonialism: Revolutionary nationalists were driven by strong nationalist sentiments, advocating for the liberation of their respective nations from colonial rule. They believed in the inherent right of peoples to govern themselves and determine their own destinies, free from external domination.

2. Socialism and Marxism: Many revolutionary nationalist movements embraced socialist or Marxist ideologies, viewing colonialism as a form of capitalist exploitation. They saw independence as a step towards achieving social and economic justice, redistributing wealth, and empowering the working classes.

3. Cultural Revival and Identity: Revolutionary nationalists often emphasized cultural revival and the celebration of indigenous traditions, languages, and histories. They sought to reclaim and assert their national identities, challenging colonial attempts to impose cultural hegemony.

4. Pan-Africanism and Pan-Asianism: In regions like Africa and Asia, revolutionary nationalists promoted Pan-Africanism and Pan-Asianism, advocating for solidarity and cooperation among oppressed peoples across continents. Leaders such as Marcus Garvey and Rabindranath Tagore championed these pan-movements to unite against colonialism.

Activities of Revolutionary Nationalists:

1. Political Mobilization and Organization: Revolutionary nationalists engaged in political mobilization, organizing mass movements, political parties, and underground networks to advance nationalist agendas. They utilized rallies, demonstrations, and propaganda to garner public support and challenge colonial authorities.

2. Civil Disobedience and Non-Cooperation: Inspired by the principles of Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders of non-violent resistance, revolutionary nationalists adopted tactics of civil disobedience, non-cooperation, and passive resistance to defy colonial laws and institutions. This included boycotts of colonial goods, refusal to pay taxes, and peaceful protests.

3. Armed Struggle and Guerrilla Warfare: In some regions, revolutionary nationalists resorted to armed struggle and guerrilla warfare against colonial forces. Movements such as the Viet Minh in Vietnam, the Mau Mau in Kenya, and the Indian National Army (INA) in India organized armed resistance to challenge colonial rule and achieve independence.

4. Intellectual and Literary Movements: Revolutionary nationalists utilized intellectual and literary avenues to promote nationalist ideologies and mobilize support. Writers, poets, and intellectuals played pivotal roles in articulating anti-colonial sentiments and shaping national consciousness through literature, art, and journalism.

5. International Diplomacy and Advocacy: Revolutionary nationalists engaged in international diplomacy and advocacy to garner support for their causes on the global stage. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana actively sought alliances with other anti-colonial movements and promoted the decolonization agenda in international forums.

Impact and Legacy:

The activities and ideologies of revolutionary nationalists during the 1920s and 1930s laid the groundwork for the eventual dismantling of colonial empires in the post-World War II era. These movements inspired waves of decolonization across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, leading to the emergence of independent nation-states. The principles of self-determination, anti-imperialism, and social justice championed by revolutionary nationalists continue to resonate in contemporary struggles for sovereignty, human rights, and global solidarity. Their legacy underscores the enduring quest for liberation and empowerment among oppressed peoples worldwide.

The comparison between modernist and non-modernist theories of the emergence of nations and nationalism reflects contrasting perspectives on the nature, origins, and dynamics of these phenomena. Modernist theories predominantly view nations and nationalism as products of modernity, while non-modernist theories emphasize deeper historical, cultural, and social factors. Let's examine and compare these two theoretical approaches:

Modernist Theories:

Modernist theories of nationalism emerged primarily in the 19th and 20th centuries, coinciding with the rise of nation-states and industrialization. Key proponents include scholars like Ernest Gellner and Benedict Anderson.

1. Primacy of Modernity: Modernist theories argue that nations and nationalism are modern constructs that emerged alongside processes of industrialization, urbanization, and state-building. They view nationalism as a product of specific historical conditions, such as the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism.

2. Imagined Communities: Benedict Anderson's concept of "imagined communities" highlights the role of print capitalism and vernacular languages in fostering a shared sense of belonging among diverse populations. Nationalism, according to Anderson, is rooted in the collective imagination of a shared national identity.

3. Standardization and Homogenization: Modernist perspectives emphasize the role of standardized education, language, and cultural symbols in fostering national consciousness. They view nationalism as a homogenizing force that consolidates diverse populations into cohesive nation-states.

4. Political Instrumentation: Modernist theories often emphasize the instrumental role of political elites and state institutions in promoting nationalism for purposes of state-building, territorial consolidation, and social cohesion. Nationalism is seen as a tool for mobilizing popular support and legitimizing state authority.

Non-Modernist Theories:

Non-modernist or alternative theories of nationalism challenge the modernist narrative by emphasizing pre-modern, cultural, and subjective dimensions of nationhood. Key proponents include scholars like Anthony D. Smith and Eric Hobsbawm.

1. Ethno-Symbolism: Anthony D. Smith's ethno-symbolist approach emphasizes the role of cultural symbols, myths, and historical memories in shaping collective identities. Nations are viewed as "ethno-cultural communities" with deep historical roots and enduring cultural practices.

2. Historical Continuities: Non-modernist perspectives highlight the continuity of pre-modern ethnic, religious, and linguistic identities that predate modern nation-states. They argue that nationalism is rooted in long-standing traditions and collective memories of shared experiences.

3. Pluralism and Diversity: Non-modernist theories reject the notion of homogeneous nation-states and emphasize the plurality and diversity of identities within national boundaries. They highlight the coexistence of multiple identities, loyalties, and affiliations.

4. Global Context: Non-modernist approaches situate nationalism within broader global processes of imperialism, colonialism, and globalization. They emphasize the complex interactions between local, regional, and global forces shaping identity formation and political mobilization.

Comparison and Evaluation:

Modernist theories tend to prioritize economic, political, and structural factors in explaining nationalism, emphasizing its contingent and instrumental nature in modern state-building processes. They focus on the transformative impact of modernity on social identities and collective consciousness.

In contrast, non-modernist theories offer a more nuanced and historically grounded understanding of nationalism, highlighting the enduring significance of cultural, linguistic, and symbolic dimensions of identity. They challenge the teleological assumptions of modernism by emphasizing the diverse and contingent nature of nationhood.

Both modernist and non-modernist perspectives contribute valuable insights into the complex phenomenon of nationalism. While modernist theories highlight the contingent and instrumental aspects of nationalism, non-modernist theories emphasize its cultural, historical, and subjective dimensions. A critical evaluation of these theories requires recognizing the multi-faceted nature of nationalism and its ongoing relevance in contemporary global politics and identity formations. Ultimately, understanding the emergence of nations and nationalism requires integrating multiple theoretical approaches and contextualizing them within broader historical and socio-cultural frameworks.