Describe any two theories of attribution.

1. Attribution Theory: Understanding the Causes of Behavior

Attribution theory is a psychological framework that explores how individuals explain the causes of their own and others' behavior. It examines the cognitive processes involved in making causal attributions and seeks to understand the factors that influence how people interpret and attribute the causes of events and outcomes.

2. Covariation Model of Attribution

The covariation model of attribution, proposed by Harold Kelley, suggests that individuals make causal attributions by analyzing the covariation of three types of information: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

a. Consensus: Consensus refers to the extent to which others behave similarly in a given situation. If multiple people behave similarly in a particular situation, individuals are more likely to attribute the behavior to external, situational factors rather than internal, dispositional factors. For example, if most students in a classroom are yawning during a lecture, observers are likely to attribute the behavior to the boring nature of the lecture (external attribution).

b. Distinctiveness: Distinctiveness refers to the extent to which the behavior is unique to a particular situation. If the behavior is unique to a specific situation, individuals are more likely to attribute it to external factors. Conversely, if the behavior is consistent across different situations, individuals are more likely to attribute it to internal factors. For example, if a student yawns only during one specific class, observers may attribute the behavior to factors specific to that class (external attribution), whereas if the student yawns in all classes, observers may attribute it to factors related to the student's disposition (internal attribution).

c. Consistency: Consistency refers to the extent to which the behavior is consistent over time. If the behavior is consistent across different occasions, individuals are more likely to attribute it to internal, dispositional factors. However, if the behavior varies over time, individuals are more likely to attribute it to external, situational factors. For example, if a student consistently yawns during lectures, observers may attribute the behavior to the student's tendency to get bored easily (internal attribution), whereas if the student yawns only occasionally, observers may attribute it to factors specific to those particular instances (external attribution).

3. Attribution Bias: Fundamental Attribution Error

The fundamental attribution error, also known as the correspondence bias, refers to the tendency for individuals to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining the behavior of others. This bias leads people to attribute others' behavior to stable, internal traits or characteristics, while ignoring the influence of external circumstances or situational factors.

For example, if a colleague fails to meet a deadline, individuals may attribute the failure to the colleague's laziness or incompetence (dispositional attribution), while overlooking factors such as a heavy workload, technical difficulties, or personal issues (situational attribution).

The fundamental attribution error is often attributed to cognitive biases, such as the availability heuristic (relying on readily available information) and the actor-observer bias (attributing others' behavior to internal traits while attributing our own behavior to situational factors).

4. Conclusion

Attribution theory provides valuable insights into how individuals interpret and explain the causes of behavior. By understanding the cognitive processes involved in making attributions, researchers can better understand social judgments, interpersonal interactions, and the dynamics of attributional biases. The covariation model of attribution and the fundamental attribution error are two prominent theories within attribution theory that offer explanations for how people attribute causes to behavior and the biases that may influence these attributions.