Describe main features of land revenue collection system during the Mughal Period.

During the Mughal Period in India (1526-1857), the land revenue collection system underwent significant development and refinement. The Mughal emperors implemented a structured and organized revenue administration, which was primarily based on the concepts of taxation and land revenue. Understanding the main features of this system provides insight into the economic and administrative policies of the Mughal Empire. Below are the main features of the land revenue collection system during the Mughal Period:

1. Zabt System:
   The central feature of Mughal revenue administration was the Zabt system, which aimed at assessing and collecting revenue from agricultural lands. The term "zabt" means fixing or assessing. Under this system, the state appointed revenue officials known as Amils or Zamindars to assess and collect revenue from specific regions or districts.

2. Measurement of Land:
   The first step in the revenue collection process was the measurement and classification of land. Lands were classified into different categories based on fertility and productivity. The measurement units included the bigha, karam, or gaz, which varied across regions.

3. Assessment of Revenue:
   Once the land was measured, revenue assessments were made based on the estimated productivity of the land. The revenue was typically assessed as a share of the agricultural produce, often ranging from one-third to one-half of the total produce.

4. Farming Methods:
   The revenue assessment took into account the type of crops grown and the irrigation facilities available. Different rates were applied for irrigated and non-irrigated lands, as well as for different types of crops.

5. Revenue Records:
   Detailed revenue records were maintained, which included the names of landholders, the area of land owned, the nature of cultivation, and the revenue assessment. These records were updated periodically and formed the basis for revenue collection.

6. Revenue Assignments:
   The Mughal emperors granted revenue assignments (known as Ijara or farming) to revenue officials or intermediaries like Zamindars. These officials were responsible for collecting revenue from the assigned territories and remitting a fixed amount to the imperial treasury.

7. Role of Zamindars:
   Zamindars played a crucial role in the revenue collection system. They were intermediaries between the state and the peasants, responsible for ensuring revenue collection from the peasants in their areas. Zamindars were often granted hereditary rights to collect revenue in exchange for loyalty and military service.

8. Todar Mal's Bandobast System:
   One of the significant reforms in revenue administration was introduced by Raja Todar Mal, a finance minister under Akbar. He implemented a revenue settlement system known as the Bandobast system, which aimed at regularizing revenue assessments based on actual agricultural productivity.

9. Revenue Collection Techniques:
   Various techniques were employed for revenue collection, including cash payments, in-kind payments (part of the agricultural produce), and forced labor (known as begar) from peasants unable to pay in cash.

10. Mansabdari System:
    The Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar, was also closely related to revenue administration. Mansabdars were given ranks (mansabs) based on their military and administrative capabilities, and they were granted revenue assignments in lieu of salary and military service.

11. Influence of Persian Administration:
    The Mughal revenue administration was influenced by Persian administrative practices. Persian terminology and administrative methods were adopted, reflecting the cultural and administrative exchange between Persia and India during the Mughal period.

12. Local Variations:
    While there was a general framework for revenue administration across the empire, there were also regional variations in revenue collection methods and practices based on local customs, traditions, and economic conditions.

The Mughal revenue collection system was instrumental in generating revenue for the imperial treasury and maintaining administrative control over a vast and diverse empire. However, it also had its drawbacks, including the exploitation of peasants by revenue officials, leading to economic hardships and discontent among the rural population. Despite its shortcomings, the Mughal revenue system laid the foundation for subsequent revenue administration systems in India and had a lasting impact on the socio-economic structure of the subcontinent.