Explain Natural drivers of climate change.

Natural drivers of climate change are factors that influence Earth's climate without human intervention. These drivers have been operating throughout Earth's history, causing fluctuations in temperature, precipitation patterns, and other climatic variables. The main natural drivers of climate change include:

1. Solar Variability: Changes in the sun's energy output, such as variations in solar radiation and sunspot activity, can influence Earth's climate over long timescales. Solar cycles, which occur roughly every 11 years, can affect the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface, contributing to periodic fluctuations in temperature and climate.

2. Volcanic Activity: Major volcanic eruptions release large quantities of ash, gases (including sulfur dioxide), and aerosols into the atmosphere. These volcanic emissions can block sunlight, leading to temporary cooling of the Earth's surface. However, the effects of volcanic eruptions on climate tend to be short-lived, lasting for a few years to a decade, as volcanic particles eventually settle out of the atmosphere.

3. Orbital Variations: Changes in Earth's orbit and axial tilt, collectively known as Milankovitch cycles, occur over thousands to tens of thousands of years. These variations can affect the distribution and intensity of sunlight reaching different parts of the Earth, influencing the timing and extent of glaciation cycles (ice ages) and interglacial periods.

4. Ocean Circulation: Natural variations in ocean circulation patterns, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO), can have significant impacts on regional and global climate. These variations alter sea surface temperatures, precipitation patterns, and atmospheric circulation, affecting weather patterns and climate conditions over short to medium timescales.

5. Plate Tectonics: The movement of Earth's tectonic plates over geological timescales can influence climate through changes in continental configurations, ocean circulation patterns, and the distribution of landmasses and ocean basins. For example, the formation of mountain ranges can affect atmospheric circulation and weather patterns, while the opening and closing of ocean gateways can alter ocean circulation and heat transport.

While these natural drivers of climate change have shaped Earth's climate over millions of years, it's important to note that human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have become the dominant drivers of contemporary climate change, leading to unprecedented warming and other climate impacts.