Describe the evolution of behaviourism. Discuss the contributions of neo-behaviourists.

1. Evolution of Behaviorism:
Behaviorism emerged as a dominant school of thought in psychology during the early 20th century, emphasizing observable behavior as the primary focus of study and rejecting the study of mental processes. The evolution of behaviorism can be traced through several key figures and developments:

• Classical Behaviorism (Watson): John B. Watson, often considered the founder of behaviorism, advocated for a strict focus on observable behavior and the rejection of introspection and mentalistic concepts. He proposed that behavior could be understood through the principles of conditioning, particularly classical conditioning, which he famously demonstrated in his experiments with Little Albert.

• Operant Behaviorism (Skinner): B.F. Skinner expanded on Watson's ideas, introducing the concept of operant conditioning to explain how behavior is shaped by its consequences. Skinner's work focused on the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior, leading to the development of principles such as schedules of reinforcement and shaping.

• Cognitive Revolution: In the mid-20th century, behaviorism began to decline in influence as the cognitive revolution brought a renewed interest in mental processes and internal states. Cognitive psychologists criticized behaviorism for its narrow focus on observable behavior and argued for the importance of studying cognition in understanding human behavior.

2. Contributions of Neo-Behaviorists:
Neo-behaviorism emerged as a response to the limitations of classical behaviorism, incorporating elements of cognitive psychology and emphasizing the role of internal processes in behavior. Neo-behaviorists made significant contributions to the field of psychology:

• Edward Tolman: Tolman introduced the concept of latent learning, demonstrating that organisms can acquire knowledge and form cognitive maps of their environment through experience, even in the absence of reinforcement. His research challenged the strict stimulus-response framework of classical behaviorism and highlighted the role of cognitive processes in behavior.

• Clark Hull: Hull developed a comprehensive theory of behavior known as the drive reduction theory, which integrated elements of classical conditioning with internal motivational factors. He proposed that behavior is driven by internal states of arousal, such as hunger or thirst, and that reinforcement reduces these drives, leading to learning and behavior change.

• Edward C. Tolman: Tolman's concept of purposive behavior emphasized the goal-directed nature of behavior and the role of cognitive processes in guiding behavior toward desired outcomes. He proposed that behavior is influenced by cognitive maps, expectations, and goals, rather than solely by external stimuli and reinforcement.

• Albert Bandura: Bandura's social learning theory expanded on traditional behaviorist principles by incorporating observational learning and the role of cognitive factors in behavior. He proposed that individuals learn by observing others and modeling their behavior, and that cognitive processes such as attention, retention, and motivation play a critical role in learning and behavior change.

Conclusion:
The evolution of behaviorism from its early roots in classical conditioning to the emergence of neo-behaviorism reflects a shift toward a more nuanced understanding of behavior that incorporates cognitive processes and internal states. While classical behaviorism provided valuable insights into the principles of learning and behavior, neo-behaviorists expanded the scope of behaviorism by acknowledging the role of cognition and internal processes in shaping behavior. The contributions of neo-behaviorists have had a lasting impact on psychology, paving the way for a more holistic and integrative approach to understanding human behavior and cognition.