Discuss the main characteristics of the popular movements during the second half of 19th century.

Introduction

The second half of the 19th century was a period marked by significant socio-political changes across the globe, and India was no exception. During this time, various popular movements emerged, driven by diverse motivations and aspirations. In this comprehensive discussion, we will explore the main characteristics of the popular movements in India during the second half of the 19th century.

1. Economic Grievances and Agrarian Movements**

One prominent characteristic of the popular movements during this period was the emergence of agrarian movements driven by economic grievances. The Indian peasantry, burdened by oppressive land revenue systems, high taxes, and usurious moneylenders, rose in protest. Movements like the Deccan Riots (1875-76) and the Indigo Revolt (1859-60) reflected the agrarian distress and the peasants' demand for fairer economic conditions.

2. Caste-Based Movements and Social Reform**

The second half of the 19th century witnessed the rise of movements aimed at addressing social inequalities and advocating for social reform. Leaders like Jyotirao Phule and E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar) played pivotal roles in challenging the caste system. Phule's Satyashodhak Samaj and Periyar's Self-Respect Movement sought to dismantle caste hierarchies, promote education among lower castes, and advocate for social justice.

3. Women's Empowerment and Reform Movements**

The 19th century saw the emergence of movements advocating for women's rights and social reform. Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts to abolish Sati and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's campaign against child marriage were early indicators of this trend. The social reform movements aimed at improving the status of women, promoting education for girls, and challenging regressive customs that curtailed women's rights.

4. Political Movements and the Indian National Congress**

The latter half of the 19th century witnessed the beginning of organized political movements with the formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885. The INC, initially a platform for educated Indians to express grievances and seek constitutional reforms, later evolved into a major force advocating for self-rule and independence. The early sessions of the INC, characterized by moderate demands, paved the way for more radical political activism in the 20th century.

5. Tribal Uprisings and Identity Movements**

Tribal uprisings marked another facet of the popular movements during this period. The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56) and the Munda Ulgulan (The Tamar Revolt) of 1899 were instances of tribal communities resisting the intrusion of external forces into their traditional territories. These movements were often rooted in the defense of tribal identity, autonomy, and resistance against exploitative practices.

6. Revivalist Movements and Cultural Identity**

Amidst the challenges posed by colonial rule, there was a resurgence of cultural identity through various revivalist movements. The Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, aimed at reforming Hindu society and promoting Vedic values. The movement emphasized a return to the ancient scriptures and sought to counter the influence of Western ideas. Similarly, the Brahmo Samaj, under the leadership of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, advocated for monotheism and social reform within Hinduism.

7. Impact of Western Education and Modern Ideas**

The proliferation of Western education during this period had a profound impact on the mindset of the Indian populace. The exposure to modern ideas, democratic principles, and nationalist ideologies fueled a desire for political autonomy. Educated Indians began to articulate demands for representative governance, civil liberties, and an end to colonial exploitation.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the popular movements during the second half of the 19th century in India were diverse and multifaceted, reflecting the complex socio-political landscape of the time. Economic grievances, social reform, women's empowerment, political activism, tribal resistance, cultural revivalism, and the impact of Western education were among the main characteristics that defined these movements. The seeds sown during this period would germinate into the larger struggle for independence in the 20th century, shaping the trajectory of India's political and social development.