Explain typologies of nationalism discussed by Gellner and Anthony Smith.

Ernest Gellner and Anthony D. Smith are notable scholars who have contributed significantly to the study of nationalism, each presenting distinct typologies that shed light on the diverse manifestations and characteristics of nationalist movements and identities. Gellner's and Smith's typologies offer frameworks for understanding how nationalism emerges, evolves, and impacts societies. Here is an explanation of their typologies:

Ernest Gellner's Typology of Nationalism:

Ernest Gellner, in his influential work "Nations and Nationalism" (1983), outlines a typology of nationalism based on the relationship between nationalism and industrialization. Gellner argues that nationalism is closely tied to modernity and the process of industrialization. According to Gellner, there are three main types of nationalism:

1. Agro-Literate Nationalism:
   Gellner identifies agro-literate nationalism as the earliest form of nationalism, emerging in agrarian societies characterized by low levels of economic and social mobility. In these societies, language and culture are tied to specific regions or localities, and there is a strong emphasis on tradition and hierarchy. Agro-literate nationalism tends to be parochial and local, with limited scope for national identity beyond localized affiliations.

2. Industrial Nationalism:
   Gellner posits that nationalism undergoes a transformation with the onset of industrialization. Industrialization disrupts traditional agrarian societies by promoting mobility, urbanization, and standardized education. As people migrate to cities and participate in a common industrial economy, linguistic and cultural boundaries become less important. Industrial nationalism is characterized by the emergence of a standardized national language, shared cultural symbols, and a sense of collective identity among diverse populations.

3. Print Capitalism:
   Gellner introduces the concept of "print capitalism" to explain the spread of standardized language and culture in industrial societies. Print capitalism refers to the proliferation of print media (such as newspapers, books, and pamphlets) that promote a unified national language and foster a sense of shared identity among geographically dispersed populations. This phenomenon contributes to the development of industrial nationalism, where national identity transcends local affiliations and becomes more inclusive.

Anthony D. Smith's Typology of Nationalism:

Anthony D. Smith, in his work "The Ethnic Origins of Nations" (1986) and subsequent writings, presents a typology of nationalism based on the primordial and perennial aspects of ethnicity and culture. Smith emphasizes the role of ethnic myths, memories, and symbols in shaping national identities. According to Smith, there are four main types of nationalism:

1. Ethnic Nationalism:
   Smith identifies ethnic nationalism as the most prevalent and enduring form of nationalism, rooted in shared myths of common ancestry, history, language, and culture. Ethnic nationalism emphasizes the primordial ties that bind a particular ethnic group together, often invoking historical grievances or memories of past glory to mobilize collective action.

2. Civic Nationalism:
   In contrast to ethnic nationalism, civic nationalism is based on political principles and shared citizenship rather than ethnic or cultural attributes. Civic nationalism emphasizes civic virtues, constitutional principles, and democratic values as the basis for national identity. It is inclusive and open to individuals of diverse ethnic backgrounds who subscribe to common political ideals.

3. Cultural Nationalism:
   Smith introduces cultural nationalism as a form of nationalism that emphasizes the importance of preserving and promoting a distinct national culture, including language, traditions, and artistic expressions. Cultural nationalism seeks to cultivate a sense of pride and identity based on shared cultural heritage, often in response to perceived threats of cultural assimilation or homogenization.

4. State-Centric Nationalism:
   Smith also discusses state-centric nationalism, which emphasizes the role of the state as the primary vehicle for promoting national identity and unity. State-centric nationalism often involves state-led efforts to standardize language, education, and cultural practices to foster a cohesive national identity within multi-ethnic or multi-cultural societies.

In summary, Gellner's typology of nationalism highlights the relationship between nationalism and industrialization, while Smith's typology emphasizes the role of ethnicity, culture, and political principles in shaping national identities. Together, these typologies provide valuable insights into the diverse manifestations and dynamics of nationalism as a complex and multifaceted phenomenon in modern societies.